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President of Syria

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For a list of officeholders, see List of presidents of Syria.

President of the Syrian Arab Republic
رئيس الجمهورية العربية السورية
Coat of arms of Syria
Presidential standard
since 29 January 2025
Executive branch of the Syrian Government
StyleMr. President
(informal)
His Excellency
(diplomatic)
StatusHead of state
Head of government
Commander-in-chief
Member of
ResidencePresidential Palace
SeatDamascus, Syria
Inaugural holderSubhi Barakat (French Mandate)
Shukri al-Quwatli (first president of post-independence Syria)
Formation17 April 1946; 78 years ago (1946-04-17)
DeputyVice President

The president of Syria (Arabic: رئيس سوريا, romanized: Raʾīs Sūriyā), officially the president of the Syrian Arab Republic, is the head of state and government of Syria. The president directs the executive branch and serves as the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Army and Armed Forces.

After the fall of the Assad regime, the position became vacant on 8 December 2024, with Ahmed al-Sharaa assuming the duties of the head of state as the de facto leader until 29 January 2025, when he was appointed president by the Syrian General Command.

The position is currently held by al-Sharaa in a transitional capacity since 29 January 2025.

History

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Mandatory Syria

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In 1922, French authorities created the Syrian Federation under the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, and Subhi Barakat was its president.[1][2] The federation system did not last, and was replaced as the State of Syria by 1925. Barakat briefly retained the role of president, until the beginning of the Great Syrian Revolt that year caused him to resign.[2] Ahmad Nami replaced Barakat as president, until he was removed in 1928.[3]

By 1930, Syrian pressure led the French authorities to promulgate the Syrian Constitution of 1930, establishing the First Syrian Republic. Under the constitution, the president must be a Muslim, and would be elected by a majority of the Syrian parliament.[4]

Post-independence

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Following the withdrawal of French troops from Syria in 1946, Syrian officials approved the Syrian Constitution of 1950, which maintained a parliamentary system. As such, the president would be elected by a majority of parliament.[5] In the following years, Syria's presidency experienced several upheavals, including by Husni al-Za'im following his March 1949 coup and later by Adib Shishakli in through the 1951 coup.[2] During Shishakli's rule, he published the Syrian Constitution of 1953, which established a presidential system with direct elections to the presidency. However, this constitution lasted less than a year, as reinstated-president Hashim al-Atassi returned the country to the 1950 constitution following the 1954 coup only a year later.[6][7]

Following the 1958 referendum, Syria joined the United Arab Republic, and its president Gamal Nasser also became the Syrian president in the same referendum.[8] This lasted for three years until the 1961 coup, when Syria restored its independence and the 1950 constitution.[9]

Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024)

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Hafez al-Assad alongside Romanian President Nicolae Ceaușescuin 1979

Following the 1963 Syrian coup d'état, the first decision of the "Revolution Command Council," chaired by Lu'ay al-Atassi, was to suspend the provisional constitution of the United Arab Republic, arrest President Nazim al-Qudsi and Prime Minister Khalid al-Azm, and impose a state of emergency that lasted for 48 years until it was lifted in April 2011.[10] A new Provisional Constitution was adopted on 25 April 1964 which itself was replaced by the Provisional Constitution of 1 May 1969.[11]

On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo.[12] The main objection to the constitution from demonstrators was that Islam was not specified as the state religion.[13] In response to riots, the Syrian Constitution of 1973 was amended to stipulate that Islam was the religion of the president.[13] The constitution has been amended twice. Article 6 was amended in 1981.[14]

After securing his control over the Syrian government, Assad initially chose his brother, Rifaat al-Assad, as his successor, but Rifaat's attempted power grab while Hafez was in a coma in 1984 led to his exile in Europe.[15] Following the incident, Bassel al-Assad was groomed to succeed his father.[16] Hafez's efforts to make Bassel the next president of Syria intensified in the early 1990s;[17] after Hafez's election victory in 1991 in an election where Hafez was the only candidate, the president was publicly referred to as "Abu Basil" (Father of Bassel).[18] Shortly after Bassel died in a car accident in 1994, Bashar was recalled to the Syrian Army. State propaganda soon began elevating Bashar's public image as "the hope of the masses" to prepare the public for a continuation of the rule of the Assad family.[19][20]

Bashar al-Assad with Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi in Damascus, 3 May 2023

Soon after the death of Bassel, Hafez al-Assad decided to make Bashar the new heir apparent.[21] After the death of Hafez al-Assad on 10 June 2000, the Constitution was amended. The minimum age requirement for the presidency was lowered from 40 to 34, which was Bashar al-Assad's age at the time.[22] The sole candidate of the presidential referendum,[23] Assad was subsequently confirmed president on 10 July 2000,[24] with 97.29% support for his leadership.[25] This made Syria the first Arab republic to establish a dynastic system.[26] In line with his role as President of Syria, he was also appointed the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces and Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath Party.[27] The existing personality cult portrays him as the "Young Leader" and the "Hope of the People."[28] Drawing influence from North Korea's hereditary leadership model,[29] official propaganda in Syria ascribed divine features to the Assad family, and reveres the Assad patriarchs as the founding fathers of modern Syria.[30]

A new constitution was approved in February 2012 after the start of the Syrian revolution.[31] A series of state elections were held every seven years which Assad won with overwhelming majority of votes. The elections are unanimously regarded by independent observers as a sham process and boycotted by the opposition.[a][b] The 2012 constitution ceased to be in effect after the fall of the Assad regime on 8 December 2024 and was officially phased out on 29 January 2025.[41][42]

Post-Ba'athist Syria (2024–present)

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Ahmed al-Sharaa with Greek Foreign Minister Giorgos Gerapetritis in Syria on 9 February 2025

After the fall of the Assad regime, the position became vacant on 8 December 2024.[43] The duties of the head of state were carried out by a transitional government, with Ahmed al-Sharaa serving as the de facto leader.[44] On 29 January 2025, during the Syrian Revolution Victory Conference in Damascus, the Syrian General Command officially appointed al-Sharaa as the president for the transitional period.[45] As president, al-Sharaa announced plans to issue a "constitutional declaration" as a legal reference following the repeal of the 2012 constitution of Ba'athist Syria.[46]

On 2 March, al-Sharaa declared the establishment of a committee tasked with drafting a constitutional declaration to guide the country's transition following the ousting of the Assad regime.[47] On 13 March, al-Sharaa signed an interim constitution, placing Syria under Islamist rule for five years while committing to protecting the rights of all Syrians during the transitional phase.[48] The Interim Constitution sets a presidential system with the executive power at the hands of the president who appoints the ministers,[49] without the position of prime minister.[50]

Powers and roles

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Politics of Syria

Arab League Member State of the Arab League

Constitution
Executive
Legislature
Judiciary
Subdivisions
Elections
Foreign relations

Executive power

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Under the 2025 Interim Constitution of Syria, the president of the Syrian Arab Republic serves as the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Army and Armed Forces and is responsible for:[51]

  • Managing national governance
  • Preserving territorial integrity and security
  • Protecting the interests of the people

The president has the authority to:[51]

  • Appoint, remove, and accept the resignations of ministers
  • Establish executive, regulatory, and control measures, as well as issue presidential orders and decisions following the law
  • Act as the state’s representative in international relations and formalize treaties with foreign nations and international organizations
  • Declare general mobilization and war with the approval of the National Security Council
  • Grant special pardons and restore honor
  • Appoint and dismiss heads of diplomatic missions abroad and receive the credentials of foreign diplomatic representatives in Syria
  • Propose laws, issue laws approved by the People's Assembly, and veto laws within one month of receipt. If the People's Assembly passes a veto law with a two-thirds majority, the president is required to enact it by decree.

In the event of a severe threat to national unity, sovereignty, or the proper functioning of state institutions, the president may:[51]

  • Impose a state of emergency, either fully or partially, for up to three months, after:
    • Securing approval from the National Security Council
    • Consulting with the speaker of the People's Assembly and the president of the Constitutional Court
  • Extend the state of emergency only with the approval of the People’s Assembly

Religion

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Article 3 states "The religion of the President of the Republic is Islam; Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation.[51]

Inauguration

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The Interim Constitution provides the following oath or affirmation for the president, which must be taken before the People's Assembly.[51]

I swear by Almighty God to faithfully preserve the sovereignty of the State, the unity of the country, the integrity of its territories, and the independence of its decision, and to defend them, and to respect the law, protect the interests of the people, and strive with all sincerity and honesty to secure a decent life for them, achieve justice among them, and consolidate noble values ​​and virtuous morals.

— Interim Constitution, Article 33, Sec. 2

Latest election

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Main article: 2021 Syrian presidential election
CandidatePartyVotes%
Bashar al-AssadBa'ath Party13,540,86095.19
Mahmoud Ahmad MareiDemocratic Arab Socialist Union470,2763.31
Abdullah Sallum AbdullahSocialist Unionist Party213,9681.50
Total14,225,104100.00
Valid votes14,225,10499.90
Invalid/blank votes14,0360.10
Total votes14,239,140100.00
Registered voters/turnout18,107,10978.64
Source: Syrian Arab News Agency[52]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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  1. ^ Sources:[24][23][25][32][33][34]
  2. ^ Sources:[35][36][37][38][39][40]

References

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  1. ^ "Arrêtés Nos. 1, 2 & 3 - Bulletin hebdomadaire des actes administratifs du Haut-Commissariat" (in French). BnF Gallica. 8 October 1922. p. 268.
  2. ^ a b c Moubayed, Sami (16 December 2024). "From Barakat to Assad: The Syrian presidency in 100 years". Al Majalla.
  3. ^ Moubayed, Sami M. (2006). "Nami, Ahmad (1879-1960)". Steel & Silk: Men and Women Who Shaped Syria 1900-2000. Cune Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-1-885942-40-1.
  4. ^ Constitution of Syria (1930) Part I, Ch. 1, Art. 3; Part II, Ch. 3
  5. ^ "Syria Constitution (1950) - Article 53". Archived from the original on 28 December 2021.
  6. ^ Haddad, Ghassan Mohammed Rashad (2007). The Political History of Syria: The Making of the Syrian Constitution (in Arabic). Beirut: Dar Al-Nahar. p. 78.
  7. ^ Torrey, Gordon (1964). The Syrian Constitution of 1950: A Study in Constitutional Development. Oxford University Press. p. 223.
  8. ^ "Syrien, 21. Februar 1958: Gamad Abd al-Nasser als Präsident der Vereinigten Arabischen Republik". Direct Democracy. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020.
  9. ^ "Constitutional history of Syria". ConstitutionNet. Retrieved 23 March 2025.
  10. ^ "Assad ends five decades of emergency rule". France 24. 21 April 2011.
  11. ^ Atassi, Karim, ed. (2018), "The Fourth Republic", Syria, the Strength of an Idea: The Constitutional Architectures of Its Political Regimes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 252–337, ISBN 978-1-107-18360-5, retrieved 20 March 2025
  12. ^ Alianak, Sonia (2007). Middle Eastern Leaders and Islam: A Precarious Equilibrium. Peter Lang. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-8204-6924-9.
  13. ^ a b "FURTHER RIOTING IN SYRIA REPORTED". The New York Times. 28 February 1973. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 February 2025.
  14. ^ "Amending the Syrian constitution... Achieving a quota or reaching a solution?". 18 June 2018.
  15. ^ "Assad son dies in car accident". Rome News Tribune. 21 June 1994. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
  16. ^ Brownlee, Jason (Fall 2007). "The Heir Apparency of Gamal Mubarak" (PDF). Arab Studies Journal: 36–56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 April 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
  17. ^ Ghadbian, Najib. "The New Asad: Dynamics of Continuity and Change in Syria" (PDF). p. 55 (4): 624–641. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2018.
  18. ^ Cook, Steven A. (December 1996). "On the Road: In Asad's Damascus". Middle East Quarterly: 39–43. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
  19. ^ "Iran Report: June 19, 2000". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 11 November 2008. Archived from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
  20. ^ Wedeen, Lisa (2015). Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 28, 39, 60–61. ISBN 978-0-226-33337-3. Archived from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2022.
  21. ^ Zisser 2007, p. 35.
  22. ^ "The rise of Syria's controversial president Bashar al-Assad". ABC News. 7 April 2017. Archived from the original on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
  23. ^ a b Yacoub Oweis, Khaleb (17 May 2007). "Syria's opposition boycotts vote on Assad". Reuters. Damascus. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
  24. ^ a b "Syrians Vote For Assad in Uncontested Referendum". The Washington Post. Damascus. Associated Press. 28 May 2007. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  25. ^ a b Klatell, James (27 May 2007). "Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum" Archived 6 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine. CBS News.
  26. ^ Solomon 2022, p. 7.
  27. ^ "Syrian President Bashar al-Assad: Facing down rebellion". BBC News. 21 October 2015. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
  28. ^ Pipes, Daniel (1995). Syria Beyond the Peace Process. Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute for Near East Policy. pp. 6, 7, 13–17. ISBN 0-944029-64-7.
  29. ^ Halasa, Malu; Omareen, Zaher; Mahfoud, Nawara (2014). Syria Speaks: Art and Culture from the Frontline. London: Saqi Books. pp. 125, 147–156, 161. ISBN 978-0-86356-787-2.
  30. ^ Shamaileh, Ammar (2017). Trust and Terror: Social Capital and the Use of Terrorism as a Tool of Resistance. New York: Routledge. pp. 66, 70–72, 82. ISBN 978-1-138-20173-6.
  31. ^ MacFarquhar, Neil; Cowell, Alan (27 February 2012). "Syrians Said to Approve Charter as Battles Go On". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 February 2025.
  32. ^ Chulov, Martin (14 April 2014). "The one certainty about Syria's looming election – Assad will win" Archived 21 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian.
  33. ^ "Syria's Assad wins another term". BBC News. 29 May 2007. Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  34. ^ "Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum". The Guardian. 28 May 2007. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  35. ^ Cheeseman, Nicholas (2019). How to Rig an Election. Yale University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-0-300-24665-0. OCLC 1089560229.
  36. ^ Norris, Pippa; Martinez i Coma, Ferran; Grömping, Max (2015). "The Year in Elections, 2014". Election Integrity Project. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2020. The Syrian election ranked as worst among all the contests held during 2014.
  37. ^ Jones, Mark P. (2018). Herron, Erik S; Pekkanen, Robert J; Shugart, Matthew S (eds.). "Presidential and Legislative Elections". The Oxford Handbook of Electoral Systems. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001. ISBN 9780190258658. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2020. … unanimous agreement among serious scholars that... al-Assad's 2014 election... occurred within an authoritarian context.
  38. ^ Makdisi, Marwan (16 July 2014). "Confident Assad launches new term in stronger position". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
  39. ^ Evans, Dominic (28 April 2014). "Assad seeks re-election as Syrian civil war rages". Reuters. Retrieved 13 March 2015.[dead link‍]
  40. ^ "UK's William Hague attacks Assad's Syria elections plan". BBC News. 15 May 2014. Archived from the original on 26 October 2022. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  41. ^ "Syrian opposition leader says state institutions will be preserved in 18-month transition". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  42. ^ "Syria suspends constitution, declares Ahmed al-Sharaa transitional president". al monitor. 29 January 2025. Retrieved 13 March 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  43. ^ "Syrian rebels say Syria is free of Assad". The Guardian. 8 December 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  44. ^ "Ahmed al-Sharaa named Syria's transitional president". www.bbc.com. 31 January 2025. Retrieved 22 March 2025. Ahmed al-Sharaa has been Syria's de facto leader since leading the overthrow of Bashar al-Assad
  45. ^ "General Command appoints Ahmed al-Sharaa as President of Syria". Enab Baladi. 29 January 2025. Retrieved 15 February 2025.
  46. ^ "Syria's interim president vows to preserve 'civil peace' in first address". France 24. 31 January 2025. Retrieved 31 January 2025.
  47. ^ "Syria forms committee to draft constitutional declaration for country's transition". Anadolu Agency. 3 March 2025. Retrieved 13 March 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  48. ^ "Syrian leader signs constitution that puts the country under an Islamist group's rule for 5 years". Associated Press News. 13 March 2025. Retrieved 13 March 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  49. ^ "Syria's new constitution gives sweeping powers, ignores minority rights". rfi. 14 March 2025. Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  50. ^ "Syria's Constitutional Draft Set for Release as Fact-Finding Committee Begins Investigations". Watan News. 12 March 2025. Retrieved 16 March 2025.
  51. ^ a b c d e "Constitutional Declaration of the Syrian Arab Republic" (PDF). 13 March 2025. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 March 2025. Retrieved 18 March 2025.
  52. ^ "Dr. Bashar al-Assad elected President of the Syrian Arab Republic with the majority of votes". Syrian Arab News Agency. 28 May 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
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